The forward scattering process is due to electron-electron interactions which deflect the primary electrons by a typically small angle, thus statistically broadening the beam in the resist ( and further in the substrate ).
22.
Since primary electrons from internal conversion carry a fixed ( large ) part of the characteristic decay energy, they have a discrete energy spectrum, rather than the spread ( continuous ) spectrum characteristic of beta particles.
23.
In a normal CCD, only one primary electron is generated per photon, except for very energetic photons, like X-rays, where a normal CCD can operate in a similar way to a SCAM.
24.
When the primary electron beam interacts with the sample, the electrons lose energy by repeated random scattering and absorption within a teardrop-shaped volume of the specimen known as the "'interaction volume "', which extends from less than 100 nm to approximately 5 �m into the surface.
25.
The number of free primary electrons generated per photon event is proportional to the photon energy and amounts to ~ 18, 000 per electronvolt, and therefore if the device is operated in single-photon count mode the energy of each captured photon can be calculated in the visible-light range, where photons have energies of a few electronvolts, each generating > 20, 000 electrons.
26.
Hyperthermophiles are organisms that can live at temperatures ranging between 70 and 125 �C . They have been the subject of intense study since their discovery in 1977 in the aerobic obligate chemolithoautotrophs, meaning these organisms build biomolecules by harvesting carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) from their environment by using hydrogen ( H 2 ) as the primary electron donor and nitrate ( NO 3 " ) as the primary electron acceptor.
27.
Hyperthermophiles are organisms that can live at temperatures ranging between 70 and 125 �C . They have been the subject of intense study since their discovery in 1977 in the aerobic obligate chemolithoautotrophs, meaning these organisms build biomolecules by harvesting carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) from their environment by using hydrogen ( H 2 ) as the primary electron donor and nitrate ( NO 3 " ) as the primary electron acceptor.
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